Analysis of Module Cells (CBB508) Assignment Sample

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Task 1

1.1 The Functions of the main eukaryotic cell organelles

The organelle which is responsible for the production of energy in a eukaryotic cell

In a eukaryotic cell, the mitochondria are often referred to as the “powerhouse” of the cell. This name is given to mitochondria because they are able to produce energy from the “ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate)” molecule (Grigaitis et al. 2020). This process of producing energy in the eukaryotic cells is called “cellular respiration”. In the process of cellular respiration one glucose molecule is broken down to form energy in the presence of an oxygen (O₂) molecule. A mitochondria contains both an inner membrane and an outer membrane which provides a path for the protons molecule to travel across the organelles (Grigaitis et al. 2020). These proton molecules can create an energy potential that is used to break down the ATP molecule. Thus mitochondria produce the energy that is essential for every eukaryotic cell to grow.

The organelle which helps in protein synthesis of a eukaryotic cell

In a eukaryotic cell, the ribosomes are mainly responsible for the synthesis of all kinds of protein molecules. In a ribosome, various steps occur that help to synthesize a protein molecule (He et al. 2020). These steps consist of “Transcription”, “Translation” and “Termination” of amino acids. An m-RNA that is present in a eukaryotic cell is translated into a protein molecule with the help of these three processes. In a ribosome, different kinds of peptide bonds are created between two amino acid molecules that help in the synthesis process of a protein molecule (He et al. 2020). Implementing all of these processes a ribosome helps a eukaryotic cell to synthesize a protein. These proteins which are produced in the eukaryotic cell have the ability to implement different kinds of processes in an organism.

The cell organelle which helps in controlling the activities of the other organelles in the eukaryotic cell

A nucleus is the main eukaryotic cell organelle that helps to control all the activities of the other cell organelles that are present in a cell. It is also often described as the “command center” of a cell (McCoy et al. 2022). The nucleus helps a cell by controlling different types of cell activities, for example, the metabolism of a cell. It controls a cell's metabolism by implementing a DNA molecule's genetic information. The nucleus can also control the synthesis of the protein molecule in a ribosome.

1.2 The specialized functions of a sperm cell

The sperm cells also described as spermatozoa, are mainly considered as the sexual reproduction center of an organism. The main function of a sperm cell is to fertilize the zygotes of an organism (Ishiguro et al. 2020). The main specialized function of a spermatozoa is to provide all the genetic information of a male into a fertilized egg of an organism. It also consists of many mitochondria which help the sperm by creating energy for travelling through a female's body. After carrying all the genetic information into a fertilized egg a sperm cell helps to create a zygote (Brunet et al. 2023). This zygote contains a very unique genetic information which is partially different from the male’s genetic information. 

Task 2

2.1 The role of different components of a plasma membrane

Figure 1: Plasma membrane

Every eukaryotic cell consists of a plasma membrane which is made of a protein and lipid bilayer. The plasma membrane plays an important role in transporting various elements through the cell (Wild et al. 2019). These elements mainly consist of Water, large protein molecules, different kinds of steroids, various ions of a cell and a wide variety of vitamins. Water molecules travel through the lipid bilayer of a plasma membrane (Brunet et al. 2023). The lipid bilayer of a eukaryotic cell’s plasma membrane is made up of some hydrophilic parts. Because of this reason, the water molecule travels through this part (Wild et al. 2019). Different ions that are present in the cells travel through the ion channel of a plasma membrane. Mainly Vitamin A and Vitamin D pass through the hydrophobic tails of a plasma membrane. Every plasma membrane consists of different protein channels by which large protein molecules travel through the plasma membrane (Diaz-Hernández et al. 2019). This is the main part from which protein molecules travel through the cells of an organism. At last, the steroid molecule travels through the outer part of the protein channel. Oxygen and a water molecule both are able to travel through an “alveoli cell membrane”. They both move through the membrane with the help of a technique that is named “Passive transport”. However, the oxygen molecule uses a simple diffusion method to travel across the membrane (Díaz-Hernández et al. 2019). The water can't pass with the help of the simple diffusion method. It uses an osmosis technique to travel through the membrane.

Figure 2: Alveoli membrane transport

The transportation of Sodium and potassium ions mainly occurs through different kinds of ion channels that are present in the plasma membrane. This process happens with the help of an ATP molecule (Yamanaka, 2020). This ATP molecule helps by pumping the Na and K ions through a plasma membrane. However, the transportation of neurotransmitters is not dependent on an ATP molecule.

Figure 3: NA/K transport in plasma membrane

2.2 Comparison between four methods of transport in a plasma membrane

Table 1: Comparison of transportation method of plasma membrane

(Source: Self-created)

There are four different steps present by which the plasma membrane transports various elements across the eukaryotic cells (Yamanaka, 2020). This process consists of osmosis of water molecules, Simple diffusion of oxygen molecules, facilitated diffusion of different protein molecules, and endocytosis of different elements.

Task 3

3.1 Comparison between the meiosis and mitosis process of a eukaryotic cell

Table 2: Comparison between meiosis and mitosis in eukaryotic cell

(Source: Self-created)

After reaching adulthood a male organism continues to divide the body cells with the help of either the meiosis or mitosis process. In some cases, both of these processes are used at the same time (Brunet et al. 2023). The meiosis process occurs inside a male body after reaching the puberty age limit. It helps by producing the gametes inside of a male. All of the somatic cells are divided with the help of the mitosis process inside of a male human. Inside the body of a male adult different kinds of cells can be divided with the help of the meiosis process. This cell division process specializes in the formation of gametes in an adult male (Brunet et al. 2023). Through the process of forming gametes, it helps the male in reproduction. In most of the adult male meiosis creates haploid daughter cells from a diploid precursor cell. The tissues where the meiosis process occurs are mainly the germinal tissues of a male. These germinal tissues consist of the testicles of an adult male. This meiosis process starts with a diploid precursor parent cell. From this parent cell, four haploid daughter cells evolved in this process. Various kinds of genetic disorders evolve inside a male adult regarding dysfunction in the meiosis process. These genetic disorders are mainly “Down’s syndrome”, “turner syndrome” etc. In an adult male, the mitosis cell division process occurs in the somatic cells. It is the complete opposite process of meiosis because meiosis occurs in the germ cells. In an adult male mitosis plays a very important role in the growth of the body, by repairing tissues and also different types of “asexual production”. The tissues that are involved in mitosis mainly consist of different kinds of somatic tissues (Kharbikar et al. 2022). These somatic tissues consist of different types of skin tissues, various muscle tissues etc. Inside an adult male mitosis creates two diploid daughter cells from the precursor cell. It also helps by repairing different damaged tissues inside of a male body. The process of mitosis starts with the help of a nucleus in a male adult. If any type of malfunction occurs in the mitosis process it creates various diseases inside an organism. The most dangerous problem that is generated in an adult male is cancer.

Task 4

4.1 Differentiation between two organizations of the human body

There are many different organizations present that create a human body. The two most important organizations of the human body are the cell and the tissue. Every human body consists of millions of cells (Kharbikar et al. 2022). These cells are the smallest part of the human body. It contains multiple components inside of it. The most important cell organelles are the nucleus, the mitochondria, the cytoplasm, the plasma membrane etc. The combination of numerous cells creates a tissue inside a human body.

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4.2 The importance of stem cells in an organism

Inside a eukaryotic cell, a wide variety of stem cells present from which different kinds of other cells are generated. Stem cells are also described as raw cells. Stem cells have the ability to regenerate and repair different kinds of tissues inside an organism. It also plays a very important role in the “embryonic development” of an organism (Harris et al 2021). Various stem cells have the ability to replace aged cells. Inside the human body, a stem cell can generate a number of important cells for example the red blood cell, the cell of the liver, the cells of the nervous system and also the cardiac cells. “Hematopoietic stem cells” have the ability to produce red blood cells. These red blood cells are used in the bone marrow transplant process. The versatile nature of stem cells creates a very important research topic in the whole world. It also has various medical applications. Stem cells have various important roles in the medical and therapeutic industry. By implementing different methods on different stem cells, different tissue therapeutic techniques can be created (De Luca et al. 2019). This technique is very important in dealing with numerous heart diseases, spinal cord problems etc. The bone marrow transplant is also a very important medical discovery which is done by the use of “hematopoietic stem cells”. After implementing different techniques different kinds of personalized medicines are also created with the help of stem cells in the medicine industry (Fuchs and Blau, 2020). It also helps to understand a wide number of disease mechanisms. Stem cells also have an important impact on drug design. Various drugs can be tested on stem cells with a higher effectiveness. It also helps in the study of drugs in the laboratories. Stem cells also have various applications in the field of tissue engineering. With the help of stem cells various organs and tissues of an organ can be created in the laboratories (Fuchs and Blau, 2020) It is the most fundamental research tool in the field of genetics and biology. It helps us to understand the complex mechanism of an organism. Thus stem cells have become a very important part of the medical and therapeutic industry of the entire world. Various new medicines and disease management techniques are being created in the entire world after implementing various research on Stem cells. In the near future, different kinds of new techniques and medicines will also be developed by the researcher which can have effective results on those diseases which have no cure.

References

Journals

• Brunet, A., Goodell, M.A. and Rando, T.A., 2023. Ageing and rejuvenation of tissue stem cells and their niches. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 24(1), pp.45-62. De Luca, M., Aiuti, A., Cossu, G., Parmar, M., Pellegrini, G. and Robey, P.G., 2019. Advances in stem cell research and therapeutic development. Nature Cell Biology, 21(7), pp.801-811. Díaz-Hernández, V., Caldelas, I. and Merchant-Larios, H., 2019. Gene expression in the supporting cells at the onset of meiosis in rabbit gonads. Sexual Development, 13(3), pp.125-136. Fuchs, E. and Blau, H.M., 2020. Tissue stem cells: architects of their niches. Cell stem cell, 27(4), pp.532-556. Grigaitis, R., Ranjha, L., Wild, P., Kasaciunaite, K., Ceppi, I., Kissling, V., Henggeler, A., Susperregui, A., Peter, M., Seidel, R. and Cejka, P., 2020. Phosphorylation of the RecQ helicase Sgs1/BLM controls its DNA unwinding activity during meiosis and mitosis. Developmental Cell, 53(6), pp.706-723. Harris, L., Rigo, P., Stiehl, T., Gaber, Z.B., Austin, S.H., del Mar Masdeu, M., Edwards, A., Urbán, N., Marciniak-Czochra, A. and Guillemot, F., 2021. Coordinated changes in cellular behavior ensure the lifelong maintenance of the hippocampal stem cell population. Cell stem cell, 28(5), pp.863-876. He, Z., Mei, L., Connell, M. and Maxwell, C.A., 2020. Hyaluronan mediated motility receptor (HMMR) encodes an evolutionarily conserved homeostasis, mitosis, and meiosis regulator rather than a hyaluronan receptor. Cells, 9(4), p.819. Ishiguro, K.I., Matsuura, K., Tani, N., Takeda, N., Usuki, S., Yamane, M., Sugimoto, M., Fujimura, S., Hosokawa, M., Chuma, S. and Ko, M.S., 2020. MEIOSIN directs the switch from mitosis to meiosis in mammalian germ cells. Developmental cell, 52(4), pp.429-445. Kharbikar, B.N., Mohindra, P. and Desai, T.A., 2022. Biomaterials to enhance stem cell transplantation. Cell Stem Cell. McCoy, R.C., summers, M.C., McCollin, A., Ottolini, C.S. and Handyside, A., 2022. Meiotic and mitotic aneuploidies drive arrest of in vitro fertilized human preimplantation embryos. Fertility and Sterility, 118(4), p.e76. Wild, P., Susperregui, A., Piazza, I., Dörig, C., Oke, A., Arter, M., Yamaguchi, M., Hilditch, A.T., Vuina, K., Chan, K.C. and Gromova, T., 2019. Network rewiring of homologous recombination enzymes during mitotic proliferation and meiosis. Molecular cell, 75(4), pp.859-874. Yamanaka, S., 2020. Pluripotent stem cell-based cell therapy—promise and challenges. Cell stem cell, 27(4), pp.523-531.